100 YEARS OF ROAD SAFETY GERALD CUMMINS In this article I have taken a qulck look at some of the landmarks in the long and fascinating history of road safety. Classical Times: Romans had one way streets, parking laws, crossing places (stepping stones), pavements, and possible roundabouts. There are occasional references to accidents. 1800's Although road safety as we know it started with the motoring age, road accidents had long been a problem in the nineteenth century, especially in the fast growing urban areas of Britain. Thus in 1875 there were 1,589 fatalities, mostly involving horse conveyance of some kind, and this was actually more than in 1910 (see RoSPA's Annual Road Accident Statistics). Very little research has been done on these accidents and on public policy towards them but the legislation of the time does contain measures on the proper use of the highway. Thus the Highway Act of 1835 prohibited riding on a footpath, and has regulations on the control and driving of carts and carriages, including a dangerous driving and riding offence. Drinking while in charge of a carriage, horse or cattle was an offence under the Licensing Act of 1872, and the Locomotive (Red Flag) Act of 1865 with its speed limit of 4 mph in open country and 2 mph in towns is well known. There must also have been a considerable body of knowledge to do with driving horse-drawn vehicles and presumably safety was included in this. 1878 BICYCLISTS TOURING CLUB. By the 1870's cyclists were venturing out into the country and meeting great hostility from horsemen and wagon-drivers (one coach guard had an iron ball on the end of a rope with which he would knock cyclists off their machines). It was the same in towns where scant heed was paid to the safety of cyclists by wagon and coach drivers. To protect themselves, and also to encourage cycling, the touring club was formed (it became the Cyclists Touring Club in 1887) and it campaigned vigorously for the rights of cyclists, with some success. They were the first to put up warning signs for hills and dangerous bends. Since that time the CTC has been deeply involved in anything to do with cycling, and like the Pedestrians Association have developed arguments that challenge the primacy accorded to the motor vehicle. It was closely involved in the post-war road safety movement, helping to develop cycle training and being represented on many of the road safety committees. 1897 THE AUTOMOBILE CLUB. Like the cyclists, early motorists were subject to hostile attention from horseriders, local authorities and the police, and formed themselves into associations to fight for their rights and also to provide services for their members. The AC later became the RAC and has been closely involved over the years in driver and motorcyclist training, and with the voluntary registration of driving instructors. 1903 MOTOR CAR ACT. This Act introduced driving licences, compulsory registration, number plates and raised the 12 mph speed limit set in 1896 to 20 mph, although local authorities could apply for a 10 mph limit in certain towns. First use of windscreens. These were made of ordinary glass and inflicted serious injuries in accidents. France introduces standard traffic signs. 1904 ROAD SIGN STANDARDISATION. At this time, most signs were erected by motoring and cycling organisations and there was little uniformity in their design, where they were placed, and in ensuring an even coverage of the country. Direction signs were erected by local authorities but this was often carried out in an indifferent manner. The Motor Car Act of the previous year had addressed this problem, and had stipulated that local authorities should erect warning signs at "dangerous corners, cross roads and precipitous places." The Local Government Board was to issue guidelines on the design of these signs, which it did in 1904. There were three types of sign: speed, prohibition and caution, as follows: 1. For 10 miles or lower limit of speed, a white ring 18 inches in diameter, with plate below giving limit in figures. 2. For prohibition, a solid red disc 18 inches in diameter. 3. For caution (dangerous corners, cross roads, or precipitous places) a hollow red equilateral triangle, 18-inch sides. 4. All other notices under the Act to be on diamond-shaped boards. The above signs are placed on the near side of the road facing the driver with their lower edges not less than eight feet from the ground, and about 50 yards from the spot to which they apply. (From a l920 Michelin Guide. By courtesy of Michelin Tyres) These signs remained in use until the 1930's, although they were modified in 1921 to include the new road numbering system on direction signs, and to include warning symbols (with a title plate underneath) agreed at a Convention in Paris in 1909. 1905 AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION. Similar to the Automobile Club. Its long running campaign against the early speed traps is well known. Over the years the AA and other motoring bodies have had great influence on road traffic and road safety legislation. The AA has undertaken a number of road safety initatives including the setting up of a research foundation, and was represented on many road safety committees after the war. First use of bumpers (UK). 1909 International Automobile Traffic and Circulation Congress, Paris. This congress was set up to address problems associated with the movement of vehicles between countries. It reached agreement on recognising driving permits of other countries, set conditions for acceptable vehicle standards (such as having two lamps to the front and one to the rear, and a "driving control" that allowed the driver to see the road), introduced international index marks, and stipulated that drivers must conform to local rules and not those of their home country. It also looked at the possibility of international road signs but agreed only on a sign for a dangerous crossing. This was to be placed 250 metres before the hazard and had to be perpendicular to the road! 1910 THE ROAD BOARD. Set up to administer grants to local authorities for road improvements, it was disbanded in 1918 and its functions taken over by the new Ministry of Transport. 1913 SELECT COMMITTEE ON MOTOR TRAFFIC. This Committee addressed the growing problems associated with the car, including accidents. 1916 LONDON "SAFETY FIRST" COUNCIL. It aimed to reduce accidents by providing training for drivers in industry and public transport; street safety measures; and public campaigns. In 1924 it amalgamated with other bodies to become the National "Safety First" Association. Among its initiatives were a safety code for road users (1924); a journal (1925); a national driving competition and the first film (1927); and later, a national safety week and film shows for children. It was consulted by government committees of the time and had considerable influence on them. In 1941 it changed its name to RoSPA. 1918 MOTOR LEGISLATION COMMITTEE. Formed by the AA, the SMMT and others to monitor legislation inimical to the motor car. In 1944 it was replaced by the Standing Joint Committee formed by the AA, RAC and RSAC. TRAFFIC LIGHTS The first three colour traffic lights were installed in New York and were manually operated by the police. Automatic signals were introduced in the UK by the mid twenties. Prior to light signals, some areas used manually operated semaphore arms. One of these had been installed outside Parliament as early as 1868. It was illuminated by gas but a leakage occured and it blew up. Traffic lights were adapted from railway use which in turn were derived from light signals used on sailing ships. 1919 LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations established a number of scientific and technical committees, one of which dealt with road traffic. This committee dealt with the harmonisation of road signs and signals and road traffic rules and its recommendations were taken up by a number of countries. The League collapsed in the late thirties but a number of the committees, including the traffic committee, continued after the War in the newly-formed United Nations. MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT Set up as an alternative to the Road Board, to provide a coherent transport policy and to co-ordinate the road system. It had a troubled early history and was under threat of merger, or dismantlement well into the twenties. Of interest was an early review of road traffic law by a departmental committee which included representatives from the motoring and trade associations, police, local authorities and others. Among the matters discussed were the construction and use of vehicles, the need to raise speed limits, driving tests, tests of physical fitness, and penalties for offences (they were against driving tests because they would be expensive, inconvenient, and of little value). The proposals were written into a draft Road Traffic Bill which was completed in 1922. Although it was not acted upon, it was referred to and amended in the discussions that took place throughout the twenties, and in that sense was the precursor of the 1930 Act. Since that time, the Minstry has continued to consolidate its pre-eminence in transport matters. Arguments have been made that road transport has come to dominate over other transport modes and that within road transport too much emphasis has been given to roads and the mobility of drivers at the expense of other road users and of problems like safety and pollution. The government has recently instituted agency agreements with sections of the DTp, which means that they now have to be self-funding. 1922 US School Patrol system started. It now operates in more than 20 countries worldwide but the concept never found favour in the UK. The Three E's concept originated about this time by Julian Harvey, an insurance manager dealing with accident claims who raised it at a Kansas City Safety Council meeting. Although he applied it to industrial safety it was later extended to traffic safety by Sidney Williams of the National Safety Council. 1923 ARM SIGNALS CODIFIED. A Home Office conference standardised a system of arm signals for use by the police and road users and these were subsequently included in the Highway Code. Around this time there was some argument as to whether pedestrians should give signals to drivers. EARLY ROUNDABOUTS The first roundabouts were developed around this time, and were based on the work of an American traffic specialist, William Phelps Eno, on traffic movements at junctions. They may in part have been suggested by existing circular road layouts as at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. The idea lent itself to city squares (eg Sloane Square), and it was not long before "true" roundabouts with central islands were being built, although initially these were too small to allow "weaving". Another variant was to impose one-way movement on a set of roads at a complex junction and effectively create a roundabout. This was done at Hyde Park Corner in 1927, where it was called a 'gyratory system'. 1928 ROYAL COMMISSION ON TRANSPORT. This had been set up to review the 1903 Act but its work was pre-empted by a bill introduced by Lord Cecil which proposed road safety measures. A select committee was then convened but it was unable to agree on Cecil's ideas and the task of drafting a bill was passed to the Minister of Transport. As a result some of Cecil's measures found their way into the 1930 RTA. Toronto introduced vehicle inspections, one year after New York had introduced these on a voluntary basis. 1930 ROAD TRAFFIC ACT. This Act introduced a minimum driving age, third party insurance, abolished the 20 mph limit and made testing for some licences compulsory. It included measures against careless and dangerous driving and provided for a highway code. 1931 THE HIGHWAY CODE. The Road Traffic Act of the previous year had required the Minister of Transport to prepare a code of directions for the guidance of road users and this was issued in 1931. Although much shorter than the present day version, it has a clearer structure and makes it plain what is required by law and what is advocated by the Code. A close reading reveals some curious points - for example, only a rear lamp or a reflector was needed on a cycle at night; pedestrians were told to look left and right before crossing, and were not to stand about in groups at blind corners. Drivers were told to look out for "white lines" and were not to pull up alongside a constable on point duty to ask a question which other people could answer. A very successful education and propaganda campaign was carried out in Salford (near Manchester) by its Chief Constable, Major Godfrey. The programme, which ran throughout the thirties was notable for its introduction of play streets, 1933 DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON TRAFFIC SIGNS. The committee decided on the size, colour and type of signs, and laid down fundamental principles for a signing system, viz. signs should be easily seen and understood, give enough advance warning, have a uniform design, and not be overused. It adopted certain signs agreed at a 1926 Paris convention but did not endorse the 1931 Geneva convention which had opted for symbol only signs and which had settled on the shape of each type of sign (although British signs were not too dissimilar). The committee also did basic groundwork on traffic signalling and introduced filter lights. ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY Although the RRL was set up at this time it was not until 1946 when the Traffic and Safety Division was formed that road safety research got under way. Since then the Division has established a world-wide reputation for its safety research. With the reduction in staff numbers in recent years more work is now placed with universities and research bodies. It has had, and continues to have, a far-reaching influence on road safety policy and practice. First high school driver education course in U.S.A. 1934 ROAD TRAFFIC ACT This brought in 30 mph limit in built-up areas, driving tests, pedestrian crossings and reflectors for bicycles. Penalties for dangerous driving were increased. DRIVING TESTS Although the RAC had been operating a system of instruction and testing of drivers since 1902, there was no official test of competence to drive. On and off, over the years, this had been the subject of much debate but its advocates finally won their case in 1934. The test covered basic car control and manoeuvres and knowledge of the Highway Code, and the MoT set up its own body of examiners. At the same time, the RAC set up a scheme for the examination and registration of driving instructors. Although in a sense the test (and the training) have been kept up to date by having to respond to changes in the road system and in driving conditions, there are omissions like motorway and night driving. These and other arguments have formed the basis for the many calls over the years for the test to be updated. although such changes were resisted by the Driving Standards Agency. However, changes have now come about as a result of an EC directive. One curious sideline to the early history of the test was Lord Cottenham's furious attack on the "amateurism" of the Ministry and on the "unhelpfulness" of the Metropolitan Police in regard to his reorganisation of police driving training at Hendon. The attacks came in his submission to the Alness Committee when he made the recommendation that driving instructors should be licenced by the police and undergo the training syllabus at Hendon and other police driving schools. This was taken up by the 1942 Committee who also recommended that examiners take the police training but it is clear from the 1947 Report that the Ministry and the driving instructors had won their case for independent action with the argument that the system would be self-regulating as those who were incompetently trained would fail the test. BELISHA BEACONS Forerunner of the "zebra" these were named after Hore Belisha, the then Minister of Transport. They consisted of orange globes (unlit) mounted on poles. 1935 HENDON DRIVING SCHOOL. This was formed by Lord Trenchard, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, in an attempt to reduce police accidents. Captain Minchon of the Royal Armoured Corps School was brought in as Transport Officer, and staff developed advanced training courses for police drivers. Lord Cottenham was appointed an adviser of the school and amended the syllabus which he found unsatisfactory. This was resisted, of course, and he has some sharp words to say about the obstructiveness of staff (some seemed to be hoping accidents would go up so that he would be proved wrong); but the accident rate did improve. Similar schools were formed in Liverpool, Preston, Manchester, Salford, Chester and Chelmsford. The "roadcraft" system and the police involvement in advanced driving stem ultimately from the work at Hendon. The Roadcraft manual itself was first published in the mid 50's, although there was an earlier version called Attention All Drivers, published in 1954. The author was "Jock" Taylor, senior instructor at Hendon. RAC DRIVING INSTRUCTOR SCHEME With the introduction of the driving test the RAC set up a scheme for the examination and registration of driving instructors which played a useful role until the introduction of the ADI register in 1964. 1936 INTER-DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON ROAD SAFETY AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN. This was a joint report of the Board of Education and the Ministry of Transport addressing the high accident rate among school children which at that time was much worse than it is today. After an analysis of the problem it looked at what had been done up to that time and then considered what should be done. As can be imagined, not very much was done, although the initiatives are described in such a way that they sound quite impressive. Thus the BBC had wireless talks; the Ministry was working to provide better footpaths and facilities for pedestrians; and the Board had issued Administrative Memoranda. To be fair, however, the infrastructure for dealing with accidents was just being set in place so that commonplace measures like the study of accident statistics, the provision of barrier rails, and police escorts for children crossing were at that time quite new and imaginative. The main impetus for road safety in schools came from the National "Safety First" Association which had been supplying materials to schools for some time, and in 1934 had received funding to produce a package for schools for a trial period. The experiment proved very successful and the Committee recommended that it be continued. The Association also organised cinema performances of safety films which by 1936 has been seen by 500,000 children. In the schools themselves, some were far ahead of others with model traffic signals, wall friezes, roads marked out in playgrounds where children could practice, and safety displays for parents at open days. It was these examples of good practice (along with good practice by LEA's, the police, etc.) which the Committee took up in their recommendations. These are too numerous to detail but they contain many good ideas and principles, some of which still have currency. Thus, one reads of safe routes to school, the value of practice in road crossing skills, and the need to give positive rather than negative guidance. One interesting point they make is a division between "protective" and educative" measures. The first consist of measures like school signs, barrier rails and lower speed limits which are aimed at providing a safe environment for the child in going to and from school. The "educative" measures, which are much as we know them, are different in that they are aimed at enabling the child to cope in a safe manner with all roads. There was also a report for Scotland which covers much the same ground. It contains a set of rules for crossing the road which it refers to as the "kerb drill" yet which is wider than the 1942 Kerb Drill, and in fact is not far off the Green Cross Code. The Report contains the following statement: "Witnesses referred to the possibility of "Safety First" lessons resulting in the fostering of a selfish prudence among children, and in a stifling of the spirit of adventure. Was there not the possibility, they asked, of rearing a timid generation, and of depreciating manly courage and the thrill of danger so attractive to the healthy schoolboy" 1937 Motor vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations Windscreens were to be of safety glass and automatic wipers were to be fitted; brakes, steering and wipers to be in good condition; glass must not obscure vision of driver Road Vehicles Lighting Regulations - dipped headlights introduced. 1939 ALNESS COMMITTEE. This was the Select Committee of the House of Lords set up to look at road accidents and is notable for laying down the three "E's" as the basis for remedial work. It advocated a more attractive Highway Code with separate versions for pedestrians and cyclists; endorsed the 1936 report on school children; and proposed a national propaganda department and local safety organisations. The police were to advise and assist and set a good example rather than rely on prosecution (courtesty cops). For drivers it wanted a tougher test and proposed banning children under ten from cycling on the road. Careless pedestrians come in for some criticism and there is an obscure but interesting dispute between cyclists and drivers about the need for rear lights on bikes (cyclists said that drivers should be going slowly enough to see them without lights, and anyway, if they did use them it would just encourage drivers to drive faster.) A large number of engineering proposals were made and many of these are now commonplace, e.g., staggered junctions, dual carriageways and anti-skid surfaces although there were one or two odd ideas like green lines painted across the road to give advance warning of traffic signs. Complete segregation of traffic was thought to be a universal panacea. One also sees the beginnings of the argument about the relative effectiveness of behavioural and engineering measures with the MoT saying that 90 per cent. of accidents were due to road users (perhaps to avoid spending money on roads!), and others, including a county surveyor, saying that they were due to the state of roads. There is a reference to the autobahns which had impressed a large delegation (247 members) from Britain in 1937, and on this basis an experimental motorway was proposed. The vehicle improvement section makes one realise how rudimentary safety was at that time, e.g., drivers peering through steering wheels rather than over them. Regular brake testing was considered but rejected as impracticable. 1941 RoSPA. When it changed its name to RoSPA, the NSFA had achieved a high degree of influence with its five representatives on the Committee on Road Safety. This shows in the inclusion of RoSPA in a proposed post-war propaganda committee, and the provision of funds for continued work in education and publicity, and the adoption of the local committee model in which RoSPA was to play a major role. In the immediate post-war period, well over 1,000 of these committees, organised into 18 Accident Prevention Federations had been formed and RoSPA was expanded to meet the demand for materials and informed advice. There were many enthusiastic volunteers on these committees, as well as representatives from local authorities, trade organisations and road user bodies. It was about this time that road safety officers or "organisers" started to appear, often honorary, part time, or volunteer and usually tied in to the committees. RoSPA actively promoted the idea that full-time road safety officers be appointed and started holding the annual RSO course in 1949. In fact the early history of RSO's, from NARSO in 1957 to the Institute in 1971 was closely bound up with RoSPA and RSOs owe much to their support in those early days. A number of major schemes such as Tufty and the NCPS were launched and have set the framework for much of the later work in schools. After re-organisation of local government in 1974, the committee structure declined as local authorities set up their own road safety departments (many RoSPA staff left to become RSOs). These changing circumstances, and a move from Purley to Birmingham necessitated a restructure and the closure of several regional offices. Since 1974 RoSPA have continued to provide and develop new programmes and materials but since the early 80's it has become increasingly common for local authorities to do this themselves. In 1989 government cost cutting led to the DTp grant being reduced resulting in many redundancies in the road safety division although RoSPA have now recovered from this. 1942 KERB DRILL. This was devised by RoSPA as just one of many measures aimed at reducing the very high child accident rate. Its injunctions: 'Look right, look left, look right again; when all is clear, quick march" formed the basis of much road safety work in schools until the more sophisticated Green Cross Code was developed. As mentioned, the 1936 report on schoolchildren had an earlier "kerb drill" which was very similar to the later Green Cross Code, viz: (1) Always stop at the Kerb. (2) Always look Right, then Left before crossing. (3) Always keep a Careful Look-out while crossing. (4) Always look out before stepping into the street from behind a Car or Omnibus. (5) (a) Where possible, cross at Traffic Signals, Islands, or other Marked Places. (5) (b) Wait for the Clear Signal, watch the Corner for turning Traffic, Then cross. (6) (a) Always walk straight across. (6) (b) Never loiter when crossing. 1944 INTERIM REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ROAD SAFETY. This was commissioned by the Minister of War Transport to examine road safety, and in particular to review the Alness Report, and advise on what measures should be adopted after the war. As a result, it is closely based on Alness but some ideas are dropped and others brought in. The Committee felt an interim report wasneeded to deal with the problems it foresaw in the early post-war period, and also to give time to prepare for the long-term measures it was proposing. Among the post-war problems were the deterioration of laid-up cars (as an aside, dealers were buying these up in their thousands in anticipation of a postwar killing); the lack of driving practice and run-down street lighting . One immedate effect of the Report was the launch of the National Road Safety Campaign in November 1945, specially aimed at the post- war dangers, but later widening out to the more general long-term campaign that had been advocated. As part of that campaign, local authorities were given 50 per cent grants to set up local organisations, and by 1947, more than 1,000 had been formed. The activities of RoSPA were expanded to cope with the increased demand on its services.