Super Sleuthing the Census:
Beyond the Population Schedules and the
Federal Census
John
W. Konvalinka, CGSM, CGLSM
©2006.
All rights reserved.
Updated 4 June
2006
Summary: :
Most of us are familiar with
the U.S. Federal Censuses from 1790 until 1930 (the latest year available to
the public.) We have used these censuses
on microfilm at the National Archives and various libraries. Many have even used the online versions of
these census indexes and images.
In addition to the “population
schedules” (the schedules most people are familiar with), the Federal Census
for various years included other schedules – Agricultural, Slave,
Manufacturing, DDD (Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes), and others. Some of these have survived and can be useful
in filling the gaps in our census research.
Besides the censuses taken by
the Federal Government, there are censuses that were taken by state (including
colonial and territorial) governments, county, local and municipal
governments. These may contain
information not included in Federal censuses and may be helpful in substituting
for lost, missing or incomplete Federal Censuses.
In addition, there are many
other records which may serve as census substitutes in helping us to place our
ancestors in a particular household, location and timeframe.
In this talk we will explore
many of the lesser known census and census substitute records – and related
finding aids – and suggest ways of including them in our research plans. We will emphasize the importance of
“researching the records before we use the records for research” to be sure we
have a complete understanding of why and how census records (and their
substitutes) were prepared including: the
questions which were asked, the instructions to census enumerators, and how the
census was actually taken.
The Federal Census: :
Population
Schedules (the ones we are most familiar with): 1790 -1930 (latest available to the
public). Information became more
detailed/useful in later censuses:
1790-1840 named only the head of household; from 1850 onwards every
person enumerated in the household was named; the 1930 census was the first to
ask for the age of each individual at the time of his/her first marriage.
Special
Schedules:
·
Mortality Schedules -- for
years 1850-1880/1885*: a listing at the
back of the population schedules of people who reportedly died in the year
before the census was taken. Causes of
death were frequently mentioned.
·
Agricultural Schedules -- 1840-1929 (Alaska); 1890-1910 have not
survived; farms that produced $100 of product were asked ~45 questions (1850)
to ~100 questions (1880) – concerning acreage, value of farm, implements and
livestock. May name someone different
from person named in Population Schedule (owner vs. manager). See www.compu-type.net/rengen/stclair/1870ag1.htm for a description of the 1870 IL Agricultural
Schedule.
·
Manufacturing/Industry Schedules -- 1810-1880/1885*; 1890 and
later years have not survived; typical questions related to capital invested,
raw materials and power used, number of employees, wages, types of products
produced. Interesting notation: a widow running a bakery with 2 employees who
produced 21,000 loaves of bread in a year!
See Manufacturing / Industry example at : www.wisconsinhistory.org/localhistory/articles/non_pop_census.asp.
·
Slave Schedules -- 1850-1860; name of owner
(only) listed; description (age, sex, color) of slaves. Some states recorded names of slaves. Some slaves (particularly in the North) were
listed by name in the Population Schedules.
The 1840 census for Mobile AL lists some slaves (by name) as Head of
Household (April 13, 2006 posting on APG-L by Elizabeth Shown Mills [for Chris
Nordman]).
Some Counties which listed Slave Names
in the Slave Schedules:
·
Utah Co., Utah
·
Bowie Co., Texas
·
Scott Co., Tennessee
·
Boyde Co., Kentucky
·
Hampshire Co., Virginia
·
Camden Co., North Carolina
(April 20, 2006 posting on
APG-L by Jane Ailes)
·
Native American Schedules – 1860-1900; since 1860-1870 population schedules included only native
Americans who were not living on reservations and who were taxed. See www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/population/native-americans-1885-1940.html for information about Indian Census Rolls
1885-1940.
·
Veterans Schedules –1840-1900 (including a special census of Union veterans in
1890);
·
DDD (Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes) Schedules -- 1880 (only); included seven different
schedules: Insane, Idiots, Deaf-mutes,
Blind, Homeless Children, Prisoners, Paupers & Indigents. Might contain useful information like
“hereditary blindness”; might provide place of former residence for
inmates/prisoners. These schedules may
not be in the National Archives; those for New Jersey are in the New Jersey
State Archives in Trenton, and have not (yet) been microfilmed.
· Social Schedules – gives numbers
of people in various churches, schools. When checking these special schedules,
always check for footnotes at the bottom of the page. See a Social Schedule example at: www.wisconsinhistory.org/localhistory/articles/non_pop_census.asp.
Much useful information about
Special Schedules and how to use them can be found in the NGS course on Special
Schedules: www.ngsgenealogy.org/Courses/Course.cfm?CID=3. www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/nonpopulation
provides a useful overview with details on each state.
*Special
Censuses:
·
1885 for Colorado, Florida, Nebraska, Dakota and New Mexico
Territories: Population, Agriculture,
Manufacturing and Mortality Schedules
· 1890 “Police”
census of New York City (see below)
· Schedule of Merchant
Seamen in 1930 Census
·
1935 Census of Business Roll Lists (Advertising Agencies, Banking
and Financial Institutions, etc.: www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/1935-business-roll-lists.html
Online Access
to Federal Censuses:
In addition to many free and
volunteer efforts to post census images online, both Ancestry.com and Heritage
Quest provide digitized images of the 1790-1930 censuses (primarily Population
Schedules, but Ancestry has mortality schedules and 1890 veterans schedule –
and other census substitutes) as part of their subscription services. (Ancestry accepts subscriptions directly from
the public; Heritage Quest must be accessed through libraries or other
organizations which have a subscription – such as: New England Historic
Genealogical Society: www.newenglandancestors.org
and The New York Genealogical and
Biographical Society www.newyorkfamilyhistory.org.) In most cases there are also nationwide
(often every name) indexes available for each census, with links to the
appropriate page of the imaged census.
To see what is available on
each service:
Ancestry: www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/census/usfedcen/default.aspx
Heritage Quest: http://genealogy.about.com/b/a/232216.htm (an article about HQ’s census service and
ways of gaining access to it)
The “Plus” Edition of Eastman’s
Online Genealogical Newsletter of 11-27-05 had a long and instructive article
“Searching U.S. Census Records Online”.
Subscription and archive information is available at: www.eogn.com/plus.
Problems in Using The Federal Census: :
Some
of the most common problems people have in trying to find someone in the Federal
Census:
·
No (or incomplete) Soundex Index: Some census years were indexed by the
government: 1880, 1900, 1910, 1920, 1930 have a
SOUNDEX index, except:
o
1880 – only households with a child under
10 years old were indexed
o 1910, 1930 – only a few states were indexed
A
further complication is that the Soundex was developed state by state. (New
online, nationwide indexes are better for finding people when we are not sure
which state they were in)
·
Misspellings, mistranscriptions or
“inverting” of names (“James Steven” for “Steven James”). Serious misspellings can land the name in an
incorrect Soundex classification.
·
Persons missing altogether from the Census
(or enumerated multiple times)
·
Persons enumerated in households (as
visitors, for instance) other than their own.
· Census takers’ and compliers’ errors. The 1880 census for St. Louis was retaken because of questions about the numbers recorded.
· People not telling the census taker the truth (about age, marital status, citizenship status, etc.)
· Knowing the date the Census was taken – or the “as of” date. (My parents were married in June, 1920. Since the “as of” date of the 1920 census was January 1, my father is not listed as the head of his household, but is enumerated under his mother’s household.)
Some
of the problems can be avoided by “researching the records before we use the
records for research!” Understanding the
Instructions to the Enumerators and the purpose of the questions asked might
clear up some of the issues. See www.ipums.umn.edu/usa/voliii/tEnumInstr.html and www.ipums.org/usa/voliii/tQuestions.html
for details on both. A good summary of
what questions were asked in which years:
www.rootsweb.com/~wsgs/census.htm. An example of some problems with
instructions: http://www.bartlesville.lib.ok.us/blog/lfh/2004/09/enumerator-instructions-for-us-census.htm. For the “as of” date for each census: http://skyways.lib.ks.us/genweb/kcgs/census.htm. See www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/1850-1930.html
for some examples of changes and additional markings on census records.
State and Other Censuses: :
State Censuses (those taken by some –
but not all – state governments) can be useful for finding individuals between
the 10 year intervals of Federal Censuses, an for periods and areas for which
Federal Census information has not survived.
This is particularly true for the period around 1890; Michigan, for
example, took a special Civil War veterans census in 1888. For an example of
a State Census (New York), see: www.frontiernet.net/~halsey1/ny/1892.htm. For a
useful article on how to use State (and Local) Censuses see: www.ancestry.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=1238. Also see Kimberly Powell’s article “Where
Can I Find State and Local Census Records?” at:
http://genealogy.about.com/od/us_census/f/state_census.htm and Joe Beine’s
Website: www.genealogybranches.com/statecensusrecords.html. Steve Morse has a tool for Searching the
Brooklyn 1925 Census in One Step: www.stevemorse.org/brooklyn/brooklyn.html
Some
“State” Censuses – really “Colonial Censuses” - predate the first
Federal Census in 1790. In New
York Colonial Censuses were taken approximately every ten years
beginning in 1690. Some have survived,
along with lists of petitioners, taxpayers, militia lists, freeholders and
persons taking oaths of allegiance. In New Jersey Colonial
censuses taken in 1726, 1738, 1745 and 1772 have not survived, but taxpayer,
quit-rent and other lists of residents (some of which have been published) may
be helpful substitutes. “Colonial
America, 1607-1789 Census Index” is available for purchase at: www.genealogy.com/310facd.html?priority=0000900
There were also some “Territorial”
censuses taken before some states achieved statehood – often to demonstrate that
they were ready for statehood; (Wyoming included women in 1860 – to increase
the “headcount”.) Some images from the
1818 Illinois Territorial Census can be found online at: www.sources2go.com/subcategory.cfm?region=PO&Cat_ID=108363&m
Local (County and City)
Censuses: As early as 1700 some cities were requiring
that a census be taken of their population.
To search a census taken in 1707 in Boston, Massachusetts, which
includes information such as the names of the residents, if they are widowed,
how many Negroes they own, and the name of their landlord, see www.familyhistory.com/db.asp?dbid=6363.
A famous local census is
the second 1890 census taken in New York City (Manhattan and West Bronx only) –
called the “police census,” because policemen asked the questions. Most of it has survived; some sections were
done twice. There are some finding
aids, and Ancestry.com has indexed the census.
The result of this census was to increase New York City’s population
from 1.5 to 1.7 million people.)
State and other census
records may contain information not found in Federal censuses, either because
different questions were asked (such as birth county, mother’s maiden name,
voter status), or because sometimes census takers made valuable notations on
their sheets. Another advantage of state
censuses is that they may become available to the public earlier than the 72
year period required of the Federal Census.
A common problem with
State (and other) Censuses is that, although many have been transcribed and are
available in book form or on the Web, many others are unindexed and not readily
available to researchers outside of the immediate area. (Some are available on Ancestry.com.) It is always worth checking with libraries in
the area being researched to see what unpublished indexes or finding aids might
be available.
Some examples of published State Censuses
(available in book form from www.Genealogy.com):
·
1770-1790 Census of the Cumberland River
Settlements -- all or part of 40 current Tennessee counties
·
State Census of North Carolina, 1784-1787
·
State Census of Albany County (New York) Towns in
1790 – a transcription of the portion of the Albany County census rescued from
the 1911 fire.
Two outstanding resources
for understanding and working with State Censuses are Ann Lainhart’s book, State
Census Records, and William Dollarhide’s series on State (and Federal)
Censuses. Both are cited below in the
“Suggestions for Further Reading” section.
(Other) Census Substitutes: :
There are innumerable other sources which can
provide information about the names, ages, family situation and places of
residence of persons we might be seeking.
Space limitations permit only a brief mention of some of the more useful
ones. Many are discussed in more detail
in RootsWeb’s Guides: www.rootsweb.com/~rwguide. (A useful list of published Illinois State
Census substitutes can be found in William Dollarhide, State Census &
Substitutes Series cited in “Suggestions for Further Reading”):
City Directories:
These can be very helpful in establishing, in the 10 year interval
between Federal Censuses, when a person died or moved into or out of the area
-- perhaps even information about where a person moved to or from. Information on city directories is available
at: www.uscitydirectories.com Ancestry’s collection of city
directories: www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/directories/main.htm. The Chicago City Directory of 1844 is
available at: www.distantcousin.com/Directories/IL/Chicago/1844.
Passenger Lists and
Naturalization Records: These can establish
when persons entered the U.S. and (particularly for post 1906 Naturalization
records) their place of birth, residence in the U.S. and other persons in their
family group.
Taxpayer, Quit-Rent, Voter
Registration, Jury and School Censuses and Other Lists of Residents: The type and availability of these kinds of
lists vary widely; each of them can be a
valuable source of information about individuals’ property, residence and
parentage. A good introduction: Cornelius Carroll, The Beginner’s Guide to
Using Tax Lists, cited in “Suggestions for Further Reading”. For an example of online access digitized
images of deeds from 1810 in Cuyahoga County OH, see: http://recorder.cuyahogacounty.us. For some Tax and other lists from Adams
County IL see: www.census-online.com/links/IL/Adams. A listing of Professional, Society,
Religious and Miscellaneous Name Rosters on RootsWeb is at: http://userdb.rootsweb.com/groups. See: www.nyc.gov/html/records/html/collections/collections_census.shtml
for Jury Censuses for New York City for 1816, 1819, and 1821. For a 1900 North Carolina School Census
see: www.rootsweb.com/~nccumber/school.htm. For information about 18th
century New Jersey Tavern Licenses, see:
www.njarchives.org/links/webcat/queries/sutavern.html.
Town Records:
A useful introduction to these (and other records) for New England: www.acadian-home.org/new-england-research.html. Some Newark (NJ) Town Meetings from the
Original Book of Records is available at:
www.altlaw.com/edball/biged4.htm
The Illinois State Archives site:
www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/archives/di/toc.htm contains a table of contents to many state departments
and institutions (including homes for veterans and their widows), including a
description of each record group held in the Archives.
Birth, Marriage and Death Records (civil or church-related):
These records might fill any missing gaps about parentage, maiden names,
family size, dates and places. For a
collection of Funeral Mass Cards, see: http://genealogytoday.com/genealogy/enoch/mass-cards/index.html
County Histories and Biographical Records (“mug books”):
See a useful introduction to these by Terry Prall
at: www.genealogytoday.com/roots/xweb.mv?xc=Legacy.Display&xo=rescms&xn=-1&xr=677&xz=genweek.mv&x_id=677 (subscription required for full access).
For a comprehensive
example of census substitutes for Morgan County Illinois see: www.rootsweb.com/~ilmaga/index.html.
Suggestions for Further
Reading:
Books::
·
U.S.
Department of Commerce, Measuring America:
The Decennial Censuses from 1790 to 2000, published 2002, available free
by calling 301-763-4636, or by download (Big!) from www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/pol02-ma.pdf
·
Kathleen
W. Hinckley, Your Guide to the Federal Census, Cincinnati OH, Betterway
Books, 2002.
·
Loretto
Dennis Szucs & Matthew Wright, Finding Answers in U.S. Census Records,
Orem, UT, Ancestry Publishing, 2002.
·
Val
D. Greenwood, The Researcher’s Guide to American Genealogy, 3rd
Edition, Baltimore, Genealogical Publishing Company, January 2000.
·
Ann
S. Lainhart, State Census Records, Baltimore, Genealogical Publishing
Company, 1992 (sixth printing, 2004).
·
Cornelius
Carroll, The Beginner’s Guide to Using Tax Lists, Baltimore, Clearfield
Company/Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc. 1996, (reprinted through at least
2002).
·
Patricia
Cline Cohen, A Calculating People, University of Chicago Press, 1982.
·
Malcolm
Gladwell, Blink – The Power of Thinking Without Thinking, New York,
Little, Brown and Company, 2005.
·
William
Dollarhide, New York: State Censuses &
Substitutes, Baltimore, Genealogical Publishing Company, 2005.
Periodical Series::
·
William
Dollarhide, State Census & Substitutes Series: Ten issues (#61-70), each covering several states,
Bountiful, UT, Heritage Creations, 2004-2005. (Ten issue set available from
Heritage Creations for $32.95)
Articles::
·
Linda
Woodward Geiger, “Deed Books – More than Land Descriptions” NGS News Magazine – Oct/Dec 2005.
·
Claire
Prechtel-Kluskens, “Who Talked to the
Census Taker?” NGS News Magazine
– Oct/Dec 2005.
·
Connie
Bradbury, “Census Duplication and Other Anomalies” NGS News Magazine – Oct/Dec 2005.
·
Sharon
DeBartolo Carmack, “Key
Ingredients” (Census Substitutes), Family Tree Magazine, April, 2004.
·
Mark
Skulnic, “Online Census Records”, Family Chronicle
Magazine, July/August, 2005
·
David
A. Fryxell, “Surfing the Census”, Family Tree
Magazine, April, 2005
·
Kory L. Meyerink,
“Immigration Clues from Census Records”,
Heritage Quest Magazine, Spring, 2005.
·
Beau
Sharbrough, “The Census Made Me Do It”, Ancestry
Magazine, February, 2006.
·
Christine
Crawford-Oppenheimer, “Locating Your Ancestors in the U.S. Federal Census”, Everton’s
Genealogical Helper, March/April 2006.
·
Steven
Motteshard, “U.S. Tax Records – More than Just Census
Substitutes”, NGS News Magazine, December, 2004.
Online Resources::
·
Patricia
Law Hatcher, “My Ancestor Isn’t in the Census!
Are You Sure?” (Lecture at NGS
Conference in the States, Pittsburgh PA, 2003).
Audio tape can be purchased from:
www.audiotapes.com/authorinfo.asp?authorid=67
·
Kimberly
Powell, “Ten Search Tips for Census Success”, May, 2006, http://genealogy.about.com/od/census/a/census_search.htm
* * * * * * *
Any
problems with these links – or questions about the talk?
Please email me at john@konvalinka.com.