Various loose groupings of theories existed :

Kant stated that 'the lunatic is a dreamer in the waking state'. Maury noted links between the dream and madness : the suspension or retardation of self-consciousness, the combination of ideas by association, changes in personality.

Radestock (1878) said most hallucinations involve sight and hearing, and pointed out that fever patients often have hypermnesia. He also commented that wish fulfilment characterises both dreams and madness.

Obviously, many ideas which people often believe were attributable to Freud (e.g. symbolisation, repression, hypermnesia, childhood memories, falsification, dramatization, associations, day residues) already existed at the end of the 19th century.

(68)

IV.5 FREUDIAN DREAM THEORY (Freud 1900,1961)

The previous section demonstrated that much of what Freud wrote on dreams was built on the ideas of earlier writers. Freudian dream theory ties in with his conceptualisation of personality which involves a tripartite structure : the unconscious Id, seeking gratification of basic (primary) instincts, especially sex and aggression ; the conscious Ego in contact with the real world and aware of society’s restraints ; the Super-ego which reminds the person how one ought to behave. In sleep the Ego is absent, so the Id (like Plato’s wild beast) obtains vicarious gratification via dreams. Freud considered the dream to be 'the Via Regis (Royal road) to the knowledge of the unconscious in mental life'.

Freud (1961) stated that dreams have a meaning and that they are wish-fulfilments. Those are ancient ideas, but Freud added the important notion that dreams represent disguised wishes. Another idea of his was that dreams guard (i.e. maintain) sleep. Dealing with this latter point first, he believed that the organism basically seeks inactivity and so the function of dreams was to divert the irritable wishes of the Id by allowing illusory satisfaction. In that way the organism need not rouse and expend energy.

In order that the Ego and Super-Ego should not be shocked by a direct display of gratification of blatant sexual wishes, the dream had to achieve this via symbolic subterfuge. Therefore a discrepancy exists between the reported dream (manifest content) and the underlying, lascivious, dream thoughts (latent content). It is the function of the dream-interpreter to analyse the dream by tracing the antecedents by a process

(69)

of free-association. People have different personal associations so no single interpretation can be applied to everyone. However, certain universal symbols in the dream (which Freud claimed could not be traced back) can have specific meanings. Thus, birth may be represented by water , male genitals by the number 3, the penis by machinery, sticks or serpents, female genitals by pits, caves, bones, landscapes, chests, pubic hair by woods or thickets, masturbation by sliding or gliding, (etc.).

Dreams arise either as a direct suppressed instinctual impulse from the Id, or a conscious (Ego) desire persisting from the day. The basic, repressed, dream-thoughts are transformed into acceptable images by the 'dream work' mechanism, which seeks to evade a hypothetical censor of the Super-ego. A process of 'secondary elaboration' or revision (whereby the person attempts to make sense of the strange symbolism and associations) may cause further distortion, in reporting.

Freud was adamant that there were no intellectual operations in the dream work: it was merely a translating device. Thus, when a person dreams of performing a calculation, or thinking, or making a judgement, one has only dreamed of doing such a thing. The relevant point for analysis is, for instance, 'I made a judgement'.

Material for the dreams consists of recent memories, including trivial incidents, and previously forgotten experiences obtained by hypermnesia. The dream may be instigated by : a recent significant event which is directly or indirectly represented in the manifest content, or some basic repressed wish which has been aroused by some association with a recent trivial event.

(70)

Freud accepted that somatic stimuli can be incorporated into dreams, although they are woven into a theme where there is a basic instinctual wish. The external stimulus is represented in such a way as to maintain the dream. Thus, an alarm-clock can become a telephone which does not have to be answered.

Some other Freudian notions are : that all the dreams in one night are supposed to centre on the same latent dream thoughts ; dream distortion is not always necessary since the dream of the death of a loved one may in fact simply state that unrecognised wish ; often, significant fragments of dreams are repressed but may emerge in psycho-analysis.

Freud had the greatest difficulty explaining anxiety dreams as wish-fulfilments. He pleaded that the dream work may have been incompetent so that direct latent material is presented , or that the fulfilment of the wish in itself provokes anxiety, or that the censor has been overpowered by strong Id forces.

Definite statements about affect in dreams were made. It is always toned down in the manifest content due to inhibition , or the cessation in sleep of the forward movement of energy from sensory to motor regions, or by censorial measures. However, the nature of the affect remains the same in both latent and manifest content - except in an inversion situation when it could represent the contrary (The ancient concept of 'opposites'.)

Apart from symbolization other dream work mechanism are condensation, dramatization and displacement : condensation fuses different wishes in the latent content so forming odd composites ,the multiplicity

(71)

of latent thoughts was termed 'over-determined'. So, a dream-person might be observed consisting of the traits of several different people. The important factor to the interpreter is what these people have in common. Similarly, names may be combined, joining two or more persons with something in common. The condensation process can also demonstrate similarities, agreement or identity between elements in the latent content. A suppressed wish for two people to resemble each other may be represented by a composite person.

Spitta’s (1892 ) notion of dramatization (or representation) was employed by Freud. This is where thoughts or concepts are expressed in visual images and the whole is like a theatrical production. Logical connections between dream thoughts may be represented by the synchronous appearance of the elements concerned (i.e. in the same dream). Causal connections between dream thoughts could be represented by an introductory dream followed by a main dream, or by a scene gradually changing into another. Conflicts between dream thoughts might by the process of opposites represent them as fused. Reversals greatly aid disguise, thus a woman dreaming of a child wading into the sea and drowning may be expressing a birth wish.

A further disguise device is displacement (or transference) where significant elements are transferred to an apparently trivial feature. This transposition also occurs with affects, so that powerful affect may be focussed on some insignificant object (as with, for example, a neurotic phobia). Displacement is supposed to explain much of the superficial bizarreness of dreams.

(72)

Many criticisms have been made of Freudian dream theory. At a very basic level, Popper (1959) considered that psycho-analytic theory, including dream theory, was a myth - that it was too easily verifiable but not readily falsifiable. Eysenck (1953) thought Freudian views unscientific since they are based on unverifiable metapsychological propositions. By today's standards Freud himself was unscientific in that he did not quantify data, used no Control groups and simply relied on his memory for statements made by patients. The concept of reaction-formation (by which an instinctual wish can be expressed by its exact opposite) makes the theory 'slippery' and hypothesizing difficult for experiments. Kline (1972) however, in a review of experiments bearing on Freudian theories, claimed that several empirical propositions were supported. Some of the studies regarding dream theory will be examined here.

Symbols are supposed to be present in dreams according to Freud, but they can also be expected in waking life since they reflect the operation of the unconscious mind. Hammer (1953) used a test of symbolism supposedly representing castration anxiety on a group of 20 male subjects who had been sterilised, and compared them to a similar-sized group of Controls who had undergone other operations (the E group was of lower intelligence though). Each person was given the HTP test (Buck, 1948) - in which the subject draws a house, tree and person - before and after the operation. The test is claimed to provide a measure of genital symbolism in that a person with castration anxiety should, say, omit the chimney (a phallic symbol), show a felled tree, or draw a person with no head. Using Fisher’s exact probability test the E group showed significantly more castration anxiety than the Controls, and significantly more than before the operation. The concept of symbolism was therefore

(73)

supported by Hammer’s study.

(Mc Elroy (1954) found, using Scottish children, that females preferred ‘male’ (pointed) shapes and males preferred rounded shapes. This was perhaps rather too simple an experiment though, as different associations for the sexes could explain the findings. Jahoda (1956) replicated the study in Ghana, where children are less repressed sexually, and found sex differences in 5 out of 12 items.

According to Freudian theory, in psychopathy, repressed primary process material should be nearer consciousness than in normal Subjects. Early work did support this (Starer, 1955).However Moos & Mussen (1959) using matched groups, found that psychotics, neurotics and normals all attached genders to symbols better then chance (10 males were used in each group to assign a gender to certain psycho-analytical symbols ). In fact though, from the Freudian viewpoint, perhaps the psychotics should be much superior at symbolism. So the finding might be said to support symbolism but not necessarily Freudian theory.

Cameron (1967) used 2000 children aged 3-17 in a study where they had to state their preferences for symbolic representations of the genitals. He found that children under 4 (Freudian oral / anal stage) showed no preference for male or female symbols ; those between 4 and 6 (phallic stage) preferred shapes of the opposite sex ; those between 7 and 12 (latency period) preferred symbols of the same sex ; and those between 12 and 17 (genital stage) preferred symbols of the opposite sex. The chi-squares supporting these findings were small though. The results do give support to the Freudian concept of symbolism and psycho-sexual theory , but the latter is of somewhat dubious validity (Kline 1972).

(74)

Hall (1953, 1966) got Subjects to record their dreams and so collected over 10,000 (manifest-content) reports. He claimed that the dream represented conflicts in the dreamer. Interpretation (without recourse to unconscious meanings) involved examining a series of dreams. His data has been used to test Freudian hypotheses :

According to Freud, the dream of being attacked represents the fear of castration by the father, and the dream of falling means the fear of losing maternal affection (Freud, 1940). Hall (1955) asked Subjects whether they had these dreams, which was the more unpleasant, and which parent they found it easier to argue with. Results were contrary to Freudian theory in that females who had only one of the dreams had a greater incidence of dreams of attack. Also, males with only one dream had more dreams of falling. Hall pointed out that the findings were congruent with Freudian theory if one assumes that the dreams do not represent fear of the action but rather the action itself. so, he argues, a woman has more dreams of being attacked because she thinks she has been castrated. A man dreams more of falling because in the dream he is castrated and so exhibits femininity - which Freud characterised by passive aims and masochism (Freud, 1931), and a sense of inferiority (Freud, 1926). Hall’s post hoc reasoning though is scientifically questionable.

Hall (1963) hypothesized from Freudian oedipal theory that there should be :

1. More male strangers in dreams than females.

2. More male strangers in male dreams than in female dreams.

4. More such encounters in male than female dreams.

3. More free-associations of fathers and authority figures to

(75)

male strangers in dreams. He found that the first 4 statements were supported (at or above the 5% level ) and the last 2 were marginally supported.

Hall & Van de Castle (1963) hypothesized that males would have more dreams on a castration-anxiety theme than of castration-wish or penis-envy. The opposite would be true of females. Castration-anxiety was supposed to be symbolised by e.g. injury, defect of the body, loss of any object, inability to use the penis (or symbol thereof) and any femininity. With castration-wish, these themes should apply to another in the dream. Penis-envy was envisaged to be reported by acquisition of a penis or symbol, admiration of a man, or acquisition of masculinity. The results of the experiment supported the hypotheses at a highly significant :

 

On the topic of wish-fulfilment in dreams Lee (1958) studied 600 rural Zulus (uncontaminated by knowledge of Freudian or Jungian theories - although Experimenter bias is still possible). In Zulu society women who do not produce children are treated with contempt. Lee found that infertile women experienced more 'baby' dreams. Also, pseudocyesis was common, and sufferers tended to have direct dreams of babies. Thus the notion of the dream as representing a basic wish gained support from this study.

 

Fisher & Dement (1963) argued that REM sleep permitted Id discharge and so any deprivation should lead to psychotic symptoms. A need to dream was hypothesized (Dement, 1960). However, Dement (1963) later stated that this could not be so, as among other arguments, lowly animals also had REM sleep. Further, in man, mono-amine-oxidase inhibitor drugs abolish REM with no significant psychological effects (Wyatt et al, 197la) Thus, it seems there is no need to dream, and perhaps not even a dire need for REM sleep.

(76)

Penile erections have been observed in REM periods (Fisher et al, 1965). However, these are not necessarily linked with dreams since erections can get out of phase with REMPs by waking subjects in REM (Karacan et al, 1965). Nevertheless, the cyclic erection could conceivably lie affected by REM content e.g. a detumescence could occur in an anxious dream. Karacan et al (1966) tested that hypothesis using 16 subjects, each spending 6 nights in the sleep-lab. Dreams were subjectively rated for anxiety on two scales (Gottschalk Scale, Nowlis Check List ), and a measure of penis size was obtained. 80% of REMPs were accompanied by erections. The Gottschalk score linked with erection size indicating that penile size is related to the dream content - although recent ejaculation does not affect the erection.

 

Dement & Wolpert (1958) found that various external stimuli (i.e. tone, water-spray, light) were incorporated into dreams on some occasions. Also, Berger (1963) obtained evidence that names could be woven into dreams when spoken to the subject in Stage REM. The incorporation was by assonance, association, representation or was direct.

Both these studies might be said to support the Freudian idea that the dream guards sleep - or rather REM sleep (since the effects are not observed in NREM).

 

Foulkes & Rechtschaffen (1964) studied the effect of a violent T.V. film, seen before sleep, on dreams, compared to a non-violent film on Control nights. Dreams after a violent film were not more violent or unpleasant, but dream reports were longer, more clear, more imaginative and more emotional. Hardly any incorporation of the film occurred.

 

Dement (1963) found that anxious

(77)

subjects in the sleep-lab on the first night, miss more REM than non-anxious persons. Altshuler (1966) considered this to be evidence that psycho-analytic theory is not supported, since greater anxiety should result in more dreaming.

This author feels that it is important to consider the historical perspective when appraising tests of Freudian dream theory. A vast amount of what he wrote about dreams had already been stated, even in some cases, for millennia. He pieced together disparate findings and attempted to link them into a unified theory. Many of the elements of this fusion probably have some truth in them (e.g. symbolisation, wish-fulfilment) as they have been observed over many generations and in several different cultures. To test these elements and claim to be testing Freudian theory is not necessarily a correct assumption. The overall metapsychology could be erroneous. For instance, his assertion that symbols disguise repressed sexual wishes could be true, but it could also simply reflect a primitive visual-symbolic 'mentation' in dreams (like the autosymbolic phenomenon of Silberer, 1909), with no ulterior motive. Evidence then of symbolisation is not, per se, evidence for Freudian theory.

 

Hall’s psycho-analytic explanations concerning strangers in dreams seems to be unnecessary to this author. Men perform more social interaction with strangers in everyday life, surely, and so the findings can be understood in terms of our ordinary patterns of behaviour. The Hall and Van de Castle study could, too, merely illustrate that man does suffer more injuries in his life anyway.

 

The finding that the erection

(78)

cycle can be shifted from REM sleep to NREM (Karacan et al, 1965) is not supportive of psychoanalytic theory. Since dreams are supposed to be highly sexual at base, the autonomic erection should be present. Findings of dream anxiety causing detumescence are not so important as the fact that erection may be transferred to a different sleep state.

 

Thus, in summary, great care must be exercised in evaluating evidence for Freudian dream theory - the basic propositions of which may be untestable.

(79)

IV.6 JUNGIAN DREAM THEORY (Fordham, 1953)

 

Jung was an erstwhile disciple of Freud, but objected to the pan-sexualism of his approach and so broke away to establish his own school of psychology. He saw the psyche as self-regulating. A form of general energy, the libido, flows between two opposing poles of personality - the opposites. We undergo a process of individuation in life, which involves the reconciliation of these opposing trends in our nature. Thus, the unconscious can be vastly different from the conscious persona. However, the unconscious is not a repository of repressed instinctual desires, as in Freudian ideology, but can be a guide and adviser of consciousness. The means of communication for the unconscious is via dreams, visions and the like. Thus, dreams are the 'voice of nature'. They have a compensatory function attempting to display any one-sidedness in our nature, so that steps might be taken to remedy this. A wicked person is supposed to have highly virtuous dreams, and vice versa. The dream then is a means of information and control.

 

In Jungian dream analysis, a series of dreams is investigated. The dream itself is treated as being important rather than the distant associations away from it. A recurring theme indicates a wrongly interpreted dream. Amplification is Jung’s process of directed associations (in contrast to free-association). The analyst keeps the associations centred on the dream, but associations of both patient and analyst are considered. In the therapeutic situation, the first dream is believed to be significant, as it reveals underlying attitudes regarding the treatment. In the method of dream-resolution, the patient’s present conscious situation is assessed, recent

(80)

events are noted, and the subjective content of the dream is recorded.

 

The structure of the dream, said Jung, is like that of classical Greek drama. The time, place and persons involved is first dealt with. Then, there is the exposition of the dream problem, which is followed by the peripety where the plot is woven and a crisis develops. Finally, in the lysis stage, the necessary solution is indicated. Jung believed that dreams having no lysis could mean that actual death was imminent for the dreamer.

Apart from the compensatory factor, dreams may also be prospective - anticipating future conscious events and performance, like a preliminary exercise. This function is in total contrast to Freud, where dreams constantly hark back to infantile sexual wishes. Dreams may revert to the 'land of childhood' which was a period when consciousness had not separated from the 'Collective unconscious'. Natural instincts are supposed to be lost at separation, but if life becomes difficult, one may wish to return to a time when the unconscious gave directions. Jung believed that modern man has forgotten that the unconscious is autonomous - it should be taken heed of.

 

A few experiments have been conducted either to test Jungian theory, or the results of which can be related to Jungian concepts. Concerning the major function of dreams as being compensatory, the hypothesis can be deduced that introverted persons should have extraverted dreams, and vice versa. Sarason (1944), using 25 mentally retarded females as subjects, noted that TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) themes and dream reports were very similar - a finding that is contrary to Jungian theory.

(81)

Gordon (1953) performed a similar study using 29 psychiatric patients, and despite 11 / 42 significant positive correlations on various dimensions, believed that compensation does occur in dreams.

Rychlak & Brams (1963) used the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) and the EPPS (Edwards Personal Preference Schedule) on 41 College students and compared these scores with the presence or absence of certain themes in dream reports. Dream reports and personality measures tended to centre on the same themes, so not supporting Jungian theory.

 

Robbins (1966) used 32 students and compared dream association ratings with EPPS scores. 3 / 11 dimensions common to both measures gave significant positive coefficients of correlation. Brender & Kramer (1967) gave TAT cards to 13 subjects who later slept in a sleep lab. 78 TAT stories and 34 dream reports were rated on 20 need dimensions. 4 of these (defence, sentience, affiliation, play) provided significant positive correlations, and only 1 (dominance) gave a negative coefficient.

 

In a test of Jungian theory Palmiere (1972) administered, to 114 students, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and selected 25 at each end of the scale of Introversion / Extraversion. 6 TAT cards were administered, with questions on personality characteristics of persons in the stories. Fantasies of extraverts should have shown more repressed introversion and vice versa. On the contrary though, introverts chose significantly more introverted responses.

 

Finally, Domino (1976) obtained

(82)

dream reports from 62 students, which were rated on 15 personality dimensions and compared with scores on the same dimensions as measured by the EPPS and ACL (Adjective Check List). 6 EPPS scores and 10 ACL scores correlated significantly, and all positively. It therefore seems that the notion of compensation in dreams, a major element in Jungian dream theory, is not supported by experimentation.

 

One criticism that might be made of Jungian dream theory is the matter of why the compensatory message has to be so subtle. Why should not a direct thought occur in the dream or when awake that 'I am too one-sided in my nature' ? It is rather like the Roman belief that dreams were messages from the gods. The rebellious Cicero asked , 'Why if the gods can warn us of impending events in dreams, should they not do so when we are awake ?' (MacKenzie 1965, pages 52-55).

(83)

IIV.7 RECENT IDEAS ON DREAMS

 

Some notions on the possible functions of the REM State in the overall context of sleep were discussed in Chapter II. Often though, any psychological significance of the dream is given little consideration. The view is reflected in such recent ideas as that where the dream is seen as a mere by-product of memory organizational processes (Evans & Newman, 1964) or where the dream is said to be produced by the initiation of PGO spikes caused by the release of monoamines at the pontine part of the brain stem (Jouvet, 1967). Other writers however, have continued the long-standing opinion that dreams are of psychological import and have developed their own systems of belief (e.g. Adler, 1958 ; Fromm, 1949 ; Hall, 1953 ; Ullman, 1962).

 

Evans & Newman (1964), treading on the dangerous ground of superficial analogy, proposed that dreams serve as a 'memory filter' rejecting redundant memories and responses-process that must occur in computers from time to time when programs are updated. They point out that human memory traces are adaptive to new situations. Computer programs too are evolved and redundant material is removed 'off-line' so as not to affect on-going processing. Old memories are not erased, they assert, since they may 'come in useful one day', but links between memories are modified in dreams. If the activity is prevented 'breakdowns' can occur. Short re-routing of several items can be reflected in 'non-sensical' dreams whereas modification of lengthy 'programs would result in long 'sensible' dreams. Repeated dreams would result from constant interruptions in the modification process of certain memories. The theory appeared at a time when it seemed that a 'need to dream' existed. That

(84)

view however has not prevailed and consequently the theory has been left rather high and dry.

 

Jouvet (1975) suggested that dreams are products of cortical stimulation arising from PGO spikes. His ideas are based on extensive neurophysiological studies on cats. He found that PGO spikes occur under the control of a 'pacemaker' in the lateral part of the pontine tegmentum in the region of the nuclei pontis oralis and caudalis (Laurent et al, 1971). Rapid ocular activity in Stage REM sleep is synchronised with PGO spikes. The spikes are seen to occur continuously after pharmacological effect on (using reserpine or para-chlorphenyl-alanine), or lesion of , the raphe nuclei (which results in a decrease of 5-HT). An inhibitory control operates normally to suppress PGO immediately on waking and this appears to be due to the activation of nor-adrenalin neurones. Another observation by Jouvet is that stereotaxic bilateral destruction of the caudal part of the nucleus coeruleus selectively suppresses the powerful motor inhibition of Stage REM. Cats with this lesion evince 'pseudo-hallucinatory behaviour' at REM times (Jouvet, 1975), acting out aggressive and other instinctive behaviours. In Stage REM then , massive muscular inhibition and the raising of sensory thresholds effectively stop any input or output, so most neurons can receive only endogenous information coming from the pons. This process can only occur when the organism is asleep, hence Jouvet states that sleep is the guardian of dreaming (a direct reversal of Freud’s dictum.) He also thinks that the period of sleep following dreaming may be important for the integration of information since a correlation exists between Stage REM duration and the following sleep period (Ursin, 1970). Another observation of Jouvet is that REM sleep appears most in the organism in utero and at birth, so it must play some important maturational function

(85)

then. Two kinds of processes seem to occur: The first (e.g. maturation of the visual system) appears to possess a critical period and depends upon stimuli from the external milieu. The second process seems to constitute a programmed genetic readout as a function of prior epigenetic events. Here, REM sleep programs or organises the integration of all the complex motor sequences necessary for genetic behaviour (instincts). Jouvet considers this to be the function of REM sleep, under the possible control of PGO activity. In adults, modification due to learning occurs to the neuro-system, however it is at this stage a rather redundant process, as total inhibition of REM can be seen by MAO-inhibitors or alpha-methyl DOPA drugs.

 

Hartmann (1973) suspects that dreaming sleep has a function independent of dreams. These are mere concomitants or indicators of brain processes. Thus, superficial 'condensation' could result from circuit connections being tested or formed - especially in the cortical areas served by ascending catecholamine pathways. Hartmann points out that a single, short stimulation of the cortex can lead to a whole story of events which unfolds over several seconds or minutes (Penfield & Jasper, 1954). From another approach, Hartmann pondered on what is not in the dream. He notes for, instance that emotions are more primitive in dreams and that the dreamer seldom feels fatigued, that free-will is absent (except in lucid-dreams). In addition, emotions change rapidly, attention is limited and reality testing is minimal. Hartmann suggests these systems are 'shunted out' during the repair processes of REM sleep. The lack of a 'continuing sense of self', he states, is the most prominent characteristic of post- lobotomy patients (Robinson & Freeman, 1954) - having of course much cortical disconnection. This situation permits the more

(86)

primitive 'primary process' activity to be reflected in dreams. The changes in dreams during the course of the night could indicate processes occurring at different levels of the brain.

 

Some major psychological viewpoints on dreams will now be considered. Adler (1958) proposed a theory of dreaming which is not as detailed as Freud’s but presents a very different approach. Mainly, he believed that sleeping and waking thoughts were similar, only there is some relative deficiency in sleep. Therefore he disagreed with Freud that the Unconscious was important in determining dream thought and that a dichotomy between Consciousness and the Unconscious existed. Sex and aggression do not generally dominate waking thoughts so they would not do so in dreams. However, like Freud, Adler believed that dreams occur when one is troubled by some unresolved problem in waking life. He also recognised the presence in dreams of such mechanisms as condensation, displacement and symbolisation. The symbol he saw not as a disguise but as a simple expression. Adler considered day-residues to be more important than Freud since they represent waking troubles. The dream though, fools the dreamer over the resolution of the problem. Ullman (1962), though, pointed out that this notion is somewhat contrary to Adler’s insistence that the dream and waking thought are similar. His ideas provided groundwork for the later opinions on dreaming of such theorists as Fromm (1951), Hall (1959) and Ullman (1962).

 

Fromm (1951) rejected much of Freud’s dogma. He thought that in sleep our frame of reference changes drastically from waking concern about survival and mastering the environment to an inner world concerned exclusively with ourselves. This contemplative state can also be attained by a waking person by focussing on inner experience. The logic of the dream world is entirely valid

(87)

for that situation. Symbolic language is employed but in Western culture this comprehension has atrophied. Dreams are therefore remnants of this mode of expression. Fromm believed that in dreams we are no longer exposed to cultural pressures and can therefore become aware of what we really feel and think. Thus, true insights and value-judgements may be experienced in dreams as well as immoral wishes. He saw the 'low' (Freudian) and 'high' (Jungian) aspects of the dream as dogmatic restrictions and thought either side of the dreamer’s character can be expressed.

 

Hall (1953) obtained a total of 10,000 samples of reported dreams from a normal population. The most frequent settings were : part of a building (24%) ; a conveyance (13%) ; a whole building (11%) ; place of recreation (10%) ; street or road (9%) ; shop (4%) ; classroom (4%) ; office or factory (1%) ; miscellaneous (14%). In the first named setting the most common rooms in the dreams were in order the living room, bedroom, kitchen, stairway, and basement. Hall saw the most outstanding feature of these settings was their commonplaceness. Bizarre and unfamiliar settings are seldom dreamed about. However, the settings do not mirror our daily lives since places of work have a lower frequency in dream reports. In addition, recreational settings are higher than in real life. As to the characters appearing in dreams, Hall divided his Subjects into 2 groups. The younger group (18—28) produced 1819 dreams. In 15% of cases only the dreamer was present.

 

In the rest the average number of persons in the dream was 3 including the dreamer. 43% of the characters were strangers, 37% were friends or acquaintances, 19% were family members or

(88)

relatives and 1% were famous persons. The dreamer’s mother appeared most frequently (34%), then the father (27%), brother (14%) and sister (12%). Men dream twice as often about males than females but women dream equally of both sexes. Also, people generally dream of persons of their own age group. Older persons (30-80) generally showed little difference, but dreamed more of younger persons. Hall generalised by saying that children dream of their parents, and vice versa, and husbands and wives dream of one another.

 

Regarding actions in dreams, Hall found the following frequencies for different categories : walking, running, riding, etc.- 34% ; talking - 11% ; sitting - 7% ; watching - 7% ; socialising - 6% ; playing - 5% ; manual work - 4% ; striving - 4% ; quarrelling and fighting - 3% ; acquiring - 3%. Flying and floating were not observed to be frequent dream activities. Hall summarised these findings by stating that 'dreamers go places more than they do things ; they play more than they work ; the activities are more passive than active.'

 

An analysis of 1320 dreams provided information on the relations between the dreamer and the other characters. Most acts were hostile (388 to 188). Of these, the behaviour was : Murder - 2% ; physical attack - 28% ; denunciation - 27% ; feelings of hostility - 8%. Emotions felt in dreams were : apprehension - 40% ; anger, happiness and excitement - 18% each ; sadness - 10%. Thus, 64% of emotions were unpleasant and 18% pleasant. Strangely, though most dreamers judged dreams more

(89)

often pleasant (41%) than unpleasant (23%). Hall could find no special characteristics of coloured dreams. In 3000 dreams, 29% were coloured (31% females, 24% males).

 

Armed with this data from typical ordinary people Hall (1955) propounded his ideas on dreams. He believes dreams can provide self- knowledge and that they may be studied to ascertain what a person thinks about during sleep. The dreamer’s problems and conflicts are experienced in the dream, portrayed like a theatrical production. On the matter of sex-dreams Hall stated that nocturnal emission shows 'unmistakably' that the dream is sexually motivated. However, this may not be so : Excessive sexual arousal (linked with erection in Stage REM) caused by some physiological instability could perhaps produce an orgasm. The dream content is not always sexual in such dreams and in that case it is not necessarily symbolic.

 

Hall gives 4 rules for understanding dreams. Firstly, that the whole theatrical effect of the dream is a creation of the dreamer’s mind. It provides a picture of subjective reality. Secondly, that nothing appears which the dreamer does not put there. Therefore the dreamer is best able to interpret the dream. Thirdly, that several conceptions of the dreamer’s self, or others, may be revealed. Fourthly, that the dream is an organic unity which needs to be interpreted as a whole. As for symbols in dreams, Hall believes they do not disguise but are merely expressive devices as occur often in waking life (e.g. a lion represents courage). However, his notions generally appear to accept Freudian dogmas such as the Oedipal complex and the omnipresence of sex and aggression in dreams.

 

Essentially he sees the dream as providing information about

(90)

the dreamer's concept of self, other people, the world, driving forces, and conflicts. Five major conflicts develop in life The child and its relationship with the parents ; the freedom - security conflict of childhood and adolescence ; the inherent bisexuality conflict ; the moral conflict between biological and sociological feelings ; the biological life / death conflict. The dream reveals the person’s feelings on these topics.

 

Ullman (1958, 1962) came forward with his own views on dream consciousness. He agreed with several statements of Adler His criticisms of Freudian theory ; the emphasis on the possible relationship of the dream to the life-style ; his emphasis on the dreamers orientation to the future. Ullman agreed partially about Adler's notion of the use of metaphor in dreams as a device for stirring up feelings regarding an aspect of the current life situation. He believed that the crucial quality of the dream is its capacity for revelation rather than concealment.

 

In modern dream interpretation, dogmatic assertions are being generally abandoned and a mixture of techniques and beliefs are often employed. For example, Faraday (1972, 1974) encourages the recording of a dream diary and a discussion, when awake, between the dreamer and any dream character to determine more about the character (a method employed by the Gestalt therapist Frederick Perls). She states certain rules for dream interpretation :

 

1. The dream should first be taken literally, as it might be a

reminder or warning.

 

2. It it makes no sense taken that way, the dream should be seen

as a metaphor.

 

3. Recent events trigger the dream.

 

4. The feelings in the dream are a good guide to the particular

problem.

 

4. Dream themes must be interpreted individually to suit the

(91)

dreamer's particular life experiences and circumstances.

 

5. A dream theme can represent different meanings on different

occasions.

7. The dream points to something that requires attention.

8. The dream is understood only when it makes sense to the dreamer.

9. If the dream is incorrectly interpreted the dreamer is unimpressed

by the interpretation.

Faraday appears to particularly seek out puns in dreams. These may take several forms : Verbal (gilt-guilt) ; reversal (filling full-fulfilled) ; visual (baseball game - 'base game') ; proper name, (long johns - Long John Nebel) ; colloquial metaphor ( shooting me down) ; literal (bare chest - getting something off one’s chest). Faraday thinks dreams are of 3 basic types : 'Looking outward', providing information about the external world - often triggered by subliminal perceptions; 'through the looking-glass', expressing our subjective attitudes to the external world ; 'looking inward', giving a picture of our feelings concerning our inner world. The dreamer may seek help from the dream itself in an interpretation by asking it to provide a meaning to a previous symbol. Faraday encourages group co-operation in dream analysis, to reduce reliance on the psychotherapist and prevent the therapist’s personal values from being thrust upon the patient.

This author would comment that since the various dream interpretation Schools have all claimed to provide the true and only method, and as each can give voluminous testimonials, perhaps the dream in fact is fairly malleable and simply reflects the person’s conscious biases (or the therapist's) regarding dreams. Since there is no physiological need to dream they need not be messages of great psychological import. In addition, the various physiological accompaniments of dreams may not be the result of psychological

(92)

activity, overt or suppressed. Random changes in physiological arousal might cause psychological effects. Nevertheless, the choice of particular images is surely highly personal to the dreamer and inasmuch their study may be revealing. Therapists assume that some great truth from an all-knowing part of the mind is at the base of the dream and that the dream is the only channel of communication (i.e. It is a special state having unique qualities). This author is reminded of his experience with 'hypnotic dreams' (Hearne, 1973 ). It was found that similar productions could be obtained without 'hypnosis'. This might be true of nocturnal dreams also. Perhaps the person need only relate an imagined dream in the waking state.

Thus, despite millennia of dream interpretation, the dream remains essentially a mystery. No one can prove that a particular analysis is the correct one ; no one can scientifically demonstrate that the dream even conveys a previously unrecognised, important, psychological message - although the cases of creativity in dreams indicate the presence of some complex mental activity during that state.

Creative people are said to have more imaginative dreams. Adelson (1957) reported that 8 College girls in a creative-writing course had far more exotic dreams than 7 'uninventive' subjects. Similarly, Schechter et al (1965) administered creativity tests to 105 students who also kept a dream diary. The Arts students, and significantly more recall of dreams than Science students, and a significant positive correlation was found between dream imaginativeness and creativity test scores.

Numerous important artistic works and scientific discoveries have emerged from the dream state. Neils Bohr's dream of a solidified sun with its planets gave him the conceptualisation of the atomic model (Krippner & Hughes, 1970). The Nobel prize-winning pharmacologist Otto Loewi discovered that nerves affect the heart-beat via an intermediary chemical, after a dream suggested the experiment. He wrote the dream down but could not decipher it in the morning. That night, the dream recurred and he performed the experiment on waking. Cannon (the neurologist), Galen (the physician), Louis Agassiz (the naturalist), all reported scientific discoveries in dreams. Elias Howe, the inventor of the sewing machine, experienced a dream in which natives were throwing spears at him. He noticed that the spears had eye-shaped holes near the tip. He woke and realised that at once that the dream had solved the problem of where to place the eye of the needle in the sewing machine. The chemist Kékulé thought of the ring structure of the benzene

(94)

molecule after seeing, in a dream, a snake with its tail in its mouth. He later told a scientific gathering that 'Gentlemen, we should learn to dream'. The mathematicians Condorcet and Carden, and the philosphers Al-Mamun and Synesius all had insights in dreams (Krippner & Hughes, 1970).

Among artistic creations, several composers (eg Mozart, Schumann, Saint-Saens, d'Indy) reported that themes had been obtained from dreams. Tartini dreamed that the devil played a sonata, but the composer, on waking, could only remember the trill. R.L. Stevenson was able to dream whole stories and even return to them if the end was unsatisfactory. His 'Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' was the result of a dream where a pursued criminal drank a potion which altered his appearance.

These cases strongly indicate that dreams have great potential in improving the quality of life of mankind.

Having given a general account of Man's historical fascination in dreams and some of the theories which have been proposed to explain them, the next Chapter deals with a particular type of dream - the study of which has been greatly neglected.

*****