English,
language learning and education
For
many teachers, the teaching of young adolescents poses some of the greatest
and most rewarding challenges. In the beginning years, a new school, new
circles of friends, new interests and new experiences can all combine to
make the period both exciting and demanding for students. It is also a
time when the basis of their approach to learning, perhaps for the rest
of their lives, is being formed. This is especially true in the learning
of foreign languages, where their first experiences define, for them, what
language learning is all about and if it is something at which they can
succeed.
In
many classrooms all over the world, the initial experience of learning
English is one of tremendous energy and imagination, in which the students
feel that a whole new world is opening up for them as they learn to express
themselves in another language. It is, however, also a sad fact that for
other students it is sometimes a time of failure and disappointment in
which they gradually feel left behind, often resorting to misbehaviour
in the classroom and a gradual rejection of the work that the teacher is
doing for them, a situation which can become worse as the years go by.
It is thus important for everybody involved in teaching adolescents to
try to determine the routes to success. In the pages which follow in this
introduction, we have set out what we believe in our experience is the
basis for success in teaching and learning English and the basis on which
Cambridge English for Schools is built. We will describe this under
four main headings:
1
Aims, which describes the purposes of the course;
2
Syllabus, which describes what the students
will be learning about;
3
Methodology, which describes the types
of activities included;
4
Evaluation, which describes how learning
and learning activities will be assessed.
1
AIMS [top
syllabus
methodology evaluation
front
page ]
Summary
The
main aims of CES are:
-
to develop the students' abilities to use and understand English;
-
to broaden the students' understanding and knowledge of the world;
-
to involve the students and to develop their abilities to manage their
own learning;
-
to support teachers in developing their own teaching abilities and their
own understanding of language learning.
1.1
Learning English and learning about the world
At
the centre of the course is the aim of developing the students' abilities
to use and understand English. For the vast majority of students, however,
whether of secondary or adult age, language itself is simply not interesting
enough to command their continual attention. Many courses have thus drawn
on what are seen as exciting teenage topics (pop music, fashion, discos,
fast food and so on) in order to try to motivate the students. It is our
view, however, that the there is a much greater potential for language
teaching. For the adolescent students, this period in their lives is often
a time when they are beginning to work out how society 'works' and how
they may fit into it. It is also a time when they often form and change
opinions very rapidly, and try to distance themselves from anything which
they might see as 'childish'. Whereas younger students might be drawn to
what we can call 'encyclopedic knowledge', adolescent students are often
concerned with more social issues. As a subject without a clearly defined
`body of knowledge' (apart from grammar, words, etc), learning English
thus presents a unique opportunity to build on these social concerns by
offering both a broader educational approach to teaching the language and
a rich variety of topics which link to the students development. It is
precisely this which CES aims to provide in Level 3.
Examples:
the topics and the themes in the Student's Book; see also 'Teaching
adolescent students', page 00.
1.2
Student involvement
One
of the keys to successful learning, however, is involvement. Whilst interesting
topics and richer, meaningful content are very important, the vital element
in learning anything is that the students feel that the learning is theirs,
and that they feel that they are a part of what goes on in the classroom.
Without this, it is very difficult for the students to sustain any motivation
they may have or which the teacher or course materials may try to bring.
All too often, we see the results of a lack of involvement: bored, seemingly
tired students, some of whom resort to misbehaviour and make teaching an
uphill struggle - particularly in the later years of language learning.
In Cambridge English for Schools, we have thus given careful thought to
ways of involving the students. Throughout the course, there are points
at which they can make decisions, think about what they have just done,
and gradually take more responsibility for their own learning.
Examples:
'Think, Investigate, Report' tasks on the opening pages of each theme;
'Decide...' exercises in most units, Help yourself list.
1.3
Support for teachers
English
language teaching, however, offers opportunities not only for the students
to learn, but for teachers to develop their own teaching. Through the course,
therefore, we aim to provide both clear guidance in using the materials
and support in understanding and thinking about some key areas in language
teaching. Our purpose in doing this is to assist teachers in understanding
why particular ways of working in their classes appear to succeed or fail
and to thus make their teaching a more rewarding experience for both the
students and themselves.
Examples:
notes on mixed ability classes in the Topic and language units;, detailed
teaching notes, the A-Z of Methodology, and the four articles on language
teaching.
2
SYLLABUS [top
aims
methodology evaluation
front
page]
Summary
CES
contains four principal syllabuses: 1) a language syllabus, mainly, of
structure, vocabulary, reading and writing; 2) an educational syllabus
of educational topics and abilities; 3) a learner involvement syllabus
which requires students to make decisions about learning; 4) a teacher
support syllabus which provides ideas for teaching and for classroom research.
From
the outline of the aims of the course, one can see that four different
syllabuses underlie the structure of CES. They are:
1)
a language development syllabus;
2)
an educational syllabus;
3)
a learner involvement syllabus; and
4)
a teacher support syllabus.
2.1
The language development syllabus
At
the heart of the language syllabus in CES lies a structural progression.
The course moves, in the familiar way, from the present tenses, through
to the past tenses, future tenses and so on. All of this is made explicit
to the students in the Language focus sections in the Topic and language
units, with students either being presented with explanations or being
encouraged to work out their own rules for forming and using language.
We have chosen to use a structural language syllabus for a number of reasons.
In our view, it provides a systematic `mapping out' which enables students
to generate an infinite number of new utterances and eventually use language
to express what they wish to say. It is also a familiar means of organizing
language which allows teachers and learners either to come to CES from
other courses or to go on to other work. The language syllabus, however,
is not a narrow 'step by step' one. Our aim is not that students master
each new structure the first time it appears but that they notice it, since
the course returns to each language point several times with numerous opportunities
to learn.
At the same time, however, the course stresses vocabulary development right from the start, continually recycling vocabulary items through new texts, exercises and record pages. As the students move through each theme, they can draw together the vocabulary they have learned and record the meanings in their Language Record - a notebook first set up in Unit 1. In addition, the Student's Workbook contains further work on vocabulary and 'vocabulary maps' where students can record meanings related to particular topics.
In terms of the `four skills', CES draws on each of the skills in a natural way as possible. Writing, for example, may be used as a means of preparing for a spoken task, listening and reading as a basis for sharing reactions and ideas. Writing, in particular, features quite a lot in CES since in our experience we believe that, used appropriately, writing can give students the chance to plan, to reflect and ask for help. Spoken, `social English', is highlighted in special 'Out and About' units where students are encouraged to discuss a moral issue or dilemma.
In
earlier levels of the course, listening was mainly treated as a
means of consolidating language already presented to students, rather than
as `listening comprehension' in the traditional sense. We approached it
in this way as, in our experience, the circumstances under which many teachers
teach (with classroom and outside noise, and limited audio facilities)
frequently makes listening work very difficult to undertake when students
are not familiar with the basic sounds of English. In Level 2 and 3, however,
listening work is presented for comprehension. We have, however, avoided
the traditional listening text followed by comprehension questions, since
we wish to encourage more engagement with the text the students hear. Normally,
therefore, students are asked to formulate their own ideas before they
listen, and then compare with what they hear on the recording. This, in
our experience, promotes a much more active and personalised approach to
listening.
Reading
plays a key part in Level 3. There are numerous short texts throughout
the course which students can 'dip into', and which present a variety of
topic and text genre (news stories, fiction, encyclopedia entries, graphs,
etc.). We have placed a special emphasis on reading in Level 3 as we feel,
within the constraints of classroom learning, that this provides the key
to developing vocabulary, fluency and confidence in understanding and using
English. It is also through reading that many students will meet English
in work and further education.
In
addition to providing plenty of practice in each of skills, the workbook
also provides six 'Ways to..' units which show the students how
they can make listening, speaking, reading and writing easier and more
efficient.
Examples:
The Map of the course, page 00; Your Language Record in Unit 1 and all
Topic and language units; Vocabulary maps in the workbook; writing in Unit
3, Exercise 1.2; spoken English in the Out and about units; reading in
the All about... sections (e.g. pages 16); listening in Unit 4, Exercise
3; Ways to... units in the workbook.
2.2
The educational syllabus
In
addition to the language aims of the course, CES also aims to make a direct
contribution to the students' general educational development. The course
therefore also has an educational syllabus which has three main aspects:
curriculum links with other subject areas; cross curriculum abilities and
attitudes and cross-cultural topics.
In
terms of curriculum links, the topics in CES have direct connections
with the work the students will do in other school subjects, but in a fresh
innovative way. These links mean that students are given the opportunity
to broaden their knowledge and understanding of the world and to contribute
what they already know. There is therefore a natural, real reason for communicating
and for working with the language.
Examples:
Topics in Themes A-F in the students book.
In
connection with cross curriculum abilities and attitudes, the course
contributes in a number of different ways. Through the presentation of
different kinds of texts (such as graphs, maps, diagrams, poems and newspaper
style articles) the students become familiar with understanding and presenting
ideas in a variety of modes. The course also shows the students how they
can gather, develop and organise their own ideas through, for example,
`brainstorming' aspects of a topic. The ability to work independently is
supported through practical advice on how they can help themselves learn.
Broader concerns such as the environment, gender roles, and ethnic minorities,
and moral dilemmas such the limits of personal responsibility and loyalty,
feature as topics for language work, and offer opportunities for students
to examine and form their own opinions.
Examples:
text presentation: see the variety of text types presented in the units;
Organising ideas: brainstorming in Unit 9, Ex. 2, and Ways to... units
in the workbook; Working independently: the Think, Investigate, Report
tasks, Help yourself list, 'Decide..' exercises; Broader issues: Units
8 and 28; personal moral issues in the Out and about units 6, 11, 16, 21,
and 26.
The
third element in the educational syllabus is cross-cultural awareness.
The Culture Matters units in the Student's Book aim to develop the students'
understanding of life in Britain, the United States, Canada and Australia
and how this compares with their own country. In addition, numerous tasks
within other units ask the students to compare across cultures, for example,
in connection with school life and climate. A further feature is the Parcel
of English scheme, which is intended to bring students in different parts
of the world into contact with each other.
Examples:
Culture Matters units 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30; Supplementary Unit A: A
Parcel of English.
2.3
The learner involvement syllabus
In
CES, the direct, personal involvement of the learners plays a very important
part. An important element of the course is the involvement of the students
in decisions over what they will work on and how they will work. The intention
with this, as explained earlier, is to give the students a greater sense
of ownership in language learning, such that they feel that what they learn
is "theirs".
Recognising,
however, that students may not have experience in thinking about such things
(if they have not been using earlier levels of CES) or that they may be
reluctant to take responsibility, the course approaches this gradually.
In the first Topic and language unit in each theme, Culture Matters and
Out and about units, students are asked to decide what they will do next.
Usually, there is a choice of tasks, with the option for the students to
decide the details of what they will do. To support students in doing this,
the Help yourself list at the back of the Student's Book provides numerous
ideas for getting extra practice. (See AtoZ Do it yourself
in the A to Z of methodology). Students can
also become involved in devising their own tests. In addition, the evaluation
sections in the Revision and evaluation units asking the students to consider
how they approach learning about how they can become more independent (see
section 4 below).
A
further aspect of the course is that topics have been chosen which give
the possibility for students to contribute their own personal ideas and
experience. The 'cross-curriculum' aspect of this is important, as we have
said, but further examples are in relation to social topics that are often
of concern to students of this age: action to help the environment, what
is 'fair', music and film, and so on.
Examples:
Units 9; Unit 16; Units 13 and 14.
2.4
The teacher support syllabus.
As
was mentioned in 1.3 above, an important aim of the course is to support
teachers in working with a particular class and in developing their teaching
abilities. To a certain extent, any course book will help teachers learn
more about teaching by introducing them to types of exercises and ways
of approaching classroom work which they have perhaps not met before. In
CES, however, this is taken one step further.
In
the later part of this Teacher's Book, there is an `A-Z
of methodology', outlining some of the main aspects of teaching
and giving practical classroom suggestions. Cross references to this A
to Z are given in the teaching notes for each unit (see the numerous 'AtoZ'
symbols) but we hope that teachers will consult the A-Z at their leisure
as means of refreshing or developing their knowledge of teaching. In addition,
at the beginning of each of the Topic and language units, there are some
questions to stimulate your thinking about aspects of teaching. These are
followed up in the four articles at the back of the Teacher's Book and
in the work on the Evaluation questionnaires in the Revision and Evaluation
units.
Additional
support is also given for teaching classes of mixed ability students.
In the teaching notes for most of the units, there are ideas for how to
give more support for particular exercises or how to make them more demanding.
For students who require further practice, there are supplementary worksheets
which you may photocopy.
Examples:the
A-Z of Methodology; mixed ability notes Unit
8 ex 3; questions at the start of each Topic and language unit; photocopiable
Language Worksheets pages in this Teacher's Book.
3
METHODOLOGY
[top aims
syllabus evaluation
front
page ]
Summary
Tasks
in CES aim to encourage the students to use English creatively, not only
reproductively, and to contribute their own ideas and experiences. The
instructions in the student's book provide clear indications for both the
teacher and the students. In general, `larger' tasks are included in order
to give the students more `space' and more control over their work. Tasks
allow students with different levels of ability to work on the same topic
and additional support is also provided for classes with mixed abilities.
An active role for the mother tongue is also suggested.
A number of aspects of CES come under the general heading of `methodology' which we will briefly describe here. They are: 1) a creative approach to language learning; 2) personalisation; 3) transparency; 4) learning centredness; 5) catering for classes with mixed abilities; and 6) use of the mother tongue.
It
would probably be fair to say that language teaching generally emphasises
what we would call `reproductive' approaches to language learning. These
include various forms of repetition (choral, substitution, reading aloud
and so on) and other tasks where students are expected to reproduce the
information and language presented to them (for example, traditional comprehension
questions) as in the traditional 'Presentation-Practice-Production' model
of teaching. There is no doubt that reproductive tasks are an important
part of classroom language learning. We believe, however, that if we want
students to develop the ability to express what they wish to say in English,
then we also need to provide tasks which encourage the students to use
the language creatively and not simply reproductively. This means that
classroom tasks need to provide opportunities for the students to contribute
their own ideas, share experiences and reactions. In CES, therefore, we
have included tasks throughout the course which aim to do this, for example,
by encouraging them to give their personal opinion or ideas about something,
to write short texts for other students to read, and to design their own
practice exercises, without following a tightly controlled model.
Examples:
The Decide... exercises throughout the course.
Creativity
as an aspect of methodology is also closely related to personalisation.
By personalisation we mean the process of bringing about "ownership" which
we referred to earlier. This happens in two main ways in CES. Firstly,
wherever possible, students are asked to contribute their own ideas and
content (for example, accounts of personal experiences, photos, and so
on). Secondly, as the course progresses, the students are brought further
and further into making decisions about their learning, within the clear
constraints laid down by the teacher and the coursebook. This as, we mentioned
earlier, includes the various `evaluation' tasks in the course which ask
the students to think back over what they have done and how they can improve
it next time, and the tasks where the students have to decide what they
wish to do next.
Examples:
The evaluation sections in the Revision and evaluation units; Exercise
1 in each Out and about unit.
A
third aspect of the course in terms of methodology is what we call transparency.
This means that it should be clear to everyone (teacher and students) what
the materials are suggesting. This, we believe, is particularly important
for the students, since greater learner involvement depends on understanding
what is going on in the classroom. In addition, experience tells us that
it is difficult - if not impossible - for many students to 100% concentration
100% of the time. For this reason, the Student's Book includes full instructions
for each task, such that both the teacher and the students have the same
information.
Examples:
the instructions for tasks in the student's book.
In
general, CES includes few of the conventional `paced' oral activities,
such as drills and choral repetition, that one often finds in course materials.
In contrast, the tasks in the course centre on `learning' (rather
than `teaching'). In addition, they are generally `larger', in which, for
example, students have to write something, read something or share ideas
with a neighbour, before being called upon to produce language to the whole
class. Our purpose in designing such tasks is to allow students more time
to think, plan, and ask questions and thus approach language learning in
a more relaxed fashion.
Examples:
The Think, Investigate, Report tasks on the opening pages for each theme;
Unit 14, Ex. 2; Unit 18, Ex 1.
Larger
tasks also make it easier for students to respond at their own level of
ability In addition, however, CES includes further support for classes
with mixed levels of ability. Some students may require further
practice exercises than the ones in the Student's Book and Workbook, and
for these students additional supplementary language worksheets are given
at the back of this teacher's book. We recognise, however, that using one
particular unit of materials in the same way with an entire class may not
always be appropriate and for this reason, the teachers notes for most
of the units include suggestions for how more support can be given to students
or how the tasks can be made more demanding. The 'Time to Spare' and the
'Revision Box' sections also off further support for students.
Examples:
Language Worksheets, page 00-00; 'mixed ability' panels in the Teaching
Notes for most units; 'Time to spare' after each Topic and language unit;
Revision panel in each Out and about unit.
A final aspect of methodology is the use of mother tongue. In CES the mother tongue plays an important role in two main ways. Firstly, a number of tasks, particularly in the Topic and language units, ask the students to think about the structure of their language and to compare it with English. Secondly, as the teacher's notes make clear, we anticipate that some of the more complex planning tasks and the evaluation stages may take place in the mother tongue, although far less so at Level 3 in the course. There are a number of reasons why we have designed the course in this way.
When
people are learning they always try to make sense of `what is new' by comparing
it with what they already know. This means that, whatever the teacher or
the coursebook says, students will translate the foreign language into
their own language and it is therefore best if this is done explicitly
so that misconceptions can be avoided. In addition, we believe that many
students often feel completely powerless and lost in language classes,
and thus the use of the mother tongue can give the students an opportunity
to participate more fully in making decisions over their own learning.
Examples:
Unit 8, Ex 3.; Unit 18, ex.3; Vocabulary maps in the Workbook.
4
EVALUATION [top
aims
syllabus methodology
front page ]
Summary
Evaluation
of the students' learning takes the form of tests in the workbook and student-produced
tests. Evaluation also focuses on how the students are working, in the
form of questionnaires in the student's book.
As we have already suggested, evaluation plays an important part in CES. There are two main ways in which it does so: evaluation of how much language the students have learned and evaluation of the actual process of learning.
In
terms of evaluation of language, the Student's Book includes an
initial test in Unit 2 and a number of self-tests in the workbook. The
students book also includes some simple tests which are intended as examples
for students to write their own tests. We have included student-designed
tests since we feel that self-assessment is a vital part of successful
language learning. Too often students view tests as a very negative experience
in which someone else makes judgements over them. Making tests available
to the students and involving them in designing their own class tests is
intended to reduce this fear and encourage them to view tests as a potentially
useful part of their learning.
Examples:
Student's Book: Units 2, 7, 17, and 32; Workbook Units 12, 22 and 27.
In
terms of evaluation of how the students are learning, the course
includes a questionnaire in each Revision and evaluation which ask the
students to think about how they study. Each questionnaire focuses on two
aspects: language (for example, their reading, writing, etc) and learning
(for example, working in groups, getting extra practice, etc.). Each evaluation
section also asks the students to think about and give suggestions for
how they can become more independent. As suggested earlier, the purpose
of doing this is, to raise the students' awareness of how they are learning
and to make them feel more involved in their language course and able to
participate in making decisions over both what they need and would like
to do.
Examples:
Evaluation questionnaires in the Revision and Evaluation units.
We hope that you enjoy using Cambridge English for Schools Level 3 and that both you and your students find it a rewarding course to work with. We welcome any comments on the materials - whether negative or positive. Please write to us:
Andrew
Littlejohn Diana Hicks
English
language teaching
Cambridge
University Press
The
Edinburgh Building
Shaftesbury
Road
Cambridge
CB2 2RU
England.
Also
by fax: +44 1223 325984
and
by email: aldh@cup.cam.ac.uk
(Andrew Littlejohn and Diana Hicks)
There
is also a World Wide Web site where you can get continuing information
on the course:
Cambridge
English for Schools web site .